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				<title>Trapped Women: Two Sister Designers</title>
				<author>Josephine Gear</author>
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					<persName>Haley Beardsley</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021- Present)</resp>
				</respStmt>
				<respStmt>
					<persName>Lyndon Beier</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2023-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Erica Delsandro</persName>
					<resp>Investigator, editor</resp>
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					<persName>Mia DeRoco</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2023-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Margaret Hunter</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Diane Jakacki</persName>
					<resp>Invesigator, encoder</resp>
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					<persName>Sophie McQuaide</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021-2023)</resp>
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					<persName>Olivia Martin</persName>
					<resp>Editor, encoder (2021)</resp>
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					<persName>Zoha Nadeer</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2022-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Bri Perea</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2022-23)</resp>
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					<persName>Carrie Pirmann</persName>
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					<persName>Ricky Rodriguez</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2022-2023)</resp>
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					<persName>Roger Rothman</persName>
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					<persName>Kaitlyn Segreti</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Maggie Smith</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Maya Wadhwa</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2021-2023)</resp>
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					<persName>Lucy Wadswoth</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2022-Present)</resp>
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					<persName>Anna Marie Wingard</persName>
					<resp>Editor (2023-Present)</resp>
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				<funder>Bucknell University Humanities Center</funder>
				<funder>Bucknell University Office of Undergraduate Research</funder>
				<funder>The Mellon Foundation</funder>
				<funder>National Endowment for the Humanities</funder>
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					<name>Bucknell University</name>
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						<street>One Dent Drive</street>
						<settlement>Lewisburg</settlement>
						<region>Pennsylvania</region>
						<postCode>17837</postCode>
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					<licence>Bucknell Heresies Project: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial
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					<licence>Heresies journal: © Heresies Collective</licence>
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							<publisher>HERESIES: A Feminist Publication on Art and
								Politics</publisher>
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									<postBox>P.O. Boxx 766, Canal Street Station</postBox>
									<settlement>New York</settlement>
									<region>New York</region>
									<postCode>10013</postCode>
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<head><title>Trapped Women: Two Sister Designers Margaret and Frances
						MacDonald</title></head>
				<byline><persName key="Gear, Josephine" ref="http://viaf.org/viaf/272024550/" cert="low">Josephine Gear</persName></byline>
				 The large, white, airy and austere room with its severely elegant chairs and
					tables and attenuated, weeping ladies transfixed in pale olive or light
					mauve-colored gesso panels around its walls, is now full. Tea cups chink against
					saucers, silk-clad wrists are held at a delicate angle, feather-plumed hats bob
					up and down, white lawn and lace covered bosoms heave sighs of contentment
					cheeks flush, tongues loosen, and the buzz of women's talk rises a quaver or two
					above the level thought acceptable if this room, a tearoom, had been found in
						London. But the like of this room, and others designed by
						<persName key="Charles Rennie Mackintosh" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q220703">Charles Rennie
						Mackintosh</persName>, architect, and his wife, <persName key="Margaret MacDonald" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q508344">Margaret Macdonald</persName>, a decorative designer, was not to be found
					in London nor in any other smart city in turn-of-the-century Britain, but in
						Glasgow, dirty, robust, tough and far-from-genteel Glasgow the
					industrial capital of Scotland.
				In the late 1890s in the heart of this city's sober business district a few
					strikingly different and simple tearoom facades appeared. Their exteriors,
					interiors, furniture and fittings displayed unconventional solutions, ethereal
					elegance and flights of imaginative thinking not seen before in the arts of this
					city. Glasgow was in the throes of an artistic renewal.
				 Margaret Macdonald (1865-1933), who contributed designs to the tearooms, and her
					sister <persName key="Frances MacDonald" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q458827">Frances Macdonald</persName>
					(1874-1921) were two of a number of women artists who, for a short while, helped
					make the arts alive in Glasgow. What follows is a brief account of their lives,
					set against the background of Glasgow, and a discussion of a few of the objects
					the sisters designed and made.
				The liveliness of the arts in this industrial capital (Europe’s sixth largest
					city) grew in part from its sound economic base. In the previous half-century
					the heavy industries of the area, mining and shipbuilding for example, enjoyed
					boom growth. <note>The first five cities were London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna
						and St. Petersburg. Glasgow’s other heavy industries were engineering,
						textiles, chemicals, printing and papermaking. C.A. Oakley, <title>The
							Second City</title> (Glasgow and London: Blackie, 1975).</note> And some
					of the profits, often via the increased income and leisure time of Glasgow's
					upper and middle classes, found their way into the support and patronage of
					local arts. How pleasant to sit in a new tearoom designed by Scottish artists of
					national prominence, with works by local and internationally known painters hung
					about on the walls, to sit there and eat a quick lunch or to linger leisurely,
					over afternoon tea. How very natural to stroll from the tearoom, seek out the
					painters or the craftsmen or women in near by studios, chat with them about
					their work and sometimes, proudly, bear home a painting, a watercolor, or even a
					beaten metal panel by one of the Macdonald sisters. 
				 In those days it was safe to bet your last brass farthing that any artist whose
					work turned your head had been a student at the <orgName key="Glasgow School of Art" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q748106">Glasgow School of Art</orgName>. Founded in 1840, the school grew out of
					the firm convictior that well-trained artists and designers could promote both
					the nation's esteem and trade. Its founders had both insight and acumen. Under
					the bustling leadership of the school's young headmaster, <persName><persName key="Francis Henry Newbery" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5481274">Francis
						Newbery</persName></persName>, and his wife, <persName key="Jessie Newbery" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q6187778">Jessie</persName>, students in the 1880s and 1890s received
					excellent training and energetic promotion. <note>In 1895, at the request
							of <title>L’Oeuvre Artistique</title>, Francis Newbery sent three cases
						of his students work to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition in Liege. T. Howarth,
							<title>Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Modern Movement</title>
						(London: Routledge and Kaegan Paul Ltd., 1952), p. 37.</note> Newbery's
					students were also fortunate in that their emerging maturity and talents
					coincided with their city's peak industrial, intellectual and artistic
					growth.
				Francis and Jessie Newbery fostered the talents of four students in particular:
					the Macdonald sisters and two young men, <persName key="Charles Rennie Mackintosh" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q220703">Charles Rennie Mackintosh</persName> and <persName key="Herbert MacNair" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q745714">Herbert
						MacNair</persName>, interior and furniture designers. The sisters were day
					students and the men were evening students; Newbery, in a critique of their
					works, told the four about the similarity of their styles, and suggested they
					meet. <note>Information told to Howarth by Herbert MacNair, p. 25.</note> In
					about 1895 the sisters and their two friends formed a group, calling themselves
					simply "The Four."

Before they met Charles and Herbert, the sisters had already established
					themselves as designers and craftswomen, showing great versatility in the range
					of objects they made and the materials with which they worked: embroidered
					hangings and covers, gesso panels, leaded glass panels, clocks, posters, water
					colors, book illustrations, and their specialty, repoussé metal panels. Margaret
					and Frances Macdonald worked well as a team. Not only did they cooperate on
					ideas and drawing, but they often bent over the same metal panel to work side by
					side. They enjoyed life. They shared a studio and held salons for all the
					leading writers and artists of Glasgow. The sisters were more than able to hold
					their own. During the short years of "The Four's" life, from about 1895 to 1899,
					the two women continued to work very closely together. "The Four" exhibited to
					gether and exchanged ideas and designs.
				The men, for example, designed furniture in which the sisters' decorative gesso
					panels were inset. The sisters evidently found the collective working
					arrangement to their advantage: during these years they produced their most
					original and vigorous designs. In 1899 Frances married MacNair and the two moved
					to Liverpool where he had a teaching post. The next year Margaret married
					Mackintosh. The MacNairs' move to Liverpool brought
					the sisters' working arrangement and the collaboration of "The Four" to an end.
					After 1899, the four artists produced independently or collaborated with their
					marriage partner on design projects. Although groups of artists were quite
					common in those decades (members of the various small English arts and crafts
					organizations around <persName key="William Morris" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q182589">William Morris</persName>,
						<persName key="Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q2662935">Arthur Mackmurdo</persName>
					and <persName key="Walter Crane" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q660917">Walter Crane</persName> worked and exhibited together), no two artists
					during this period seemed to work and live in such close harmony as the two
					sisters. Their life and work together in the Glasgow studio gave a certain
					intensity to their work, an intensity which was lost after they separated in
					1899.
				The strand of another independent, spirited and middle-class woman, <persName key="Catherine Cranston" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5052609">Catherine Cranston</persName>, is yet to be woven into the story. Catherine
					became a principal patron of Charles and Margaret Macdonald. <note>Her
						brother, Stuart Cranston, was also in the tearoom business. Catherine
						Cranston appears to have been the important patron of Mackintosh and
						Macdonald. The tearooms’ busiest hours were 11:00 to noon, 4:00 to 5:00 p.m.
						Smoke-rooms were set aside for the men. Margaret Macdonald’s contributions
						to the tearooms were not as important as her husband’s were. Therefore, the
						tearooms are not discussed further. See Howarth on Mackintosh’s tearoom
						designs.</note> As the creator and owner of the tearooms she commissioned
					husband and wife to design the rooms' every aspect, from their structure and
					decoration to designs for posters and menu cards. In the tearooms the arts and
					crafts mingled freely and complemented each other.

Better yet, Catherine Cranston's women customers found the environment
					supportive. The tearooms created a social phenomenon by becoming "virtually the
					first places of their kind where even the richest and most elegant of Edwardian
					female society might properly meet without chaperons." <note>H. Jefferson
						Barnes, <title>Furniture by Charles Rennie Mackintosh</title>, (Glasgow:
						Glasgow School of Art, 1969).</note>
				
				Unlike the tearoom clientele, Margaret and Frances lived free from the shadows of
					chaperons. By the standards of their day they were liberated. Details of their
					lives before marriage are poorly documented, so it is difficult to locate the
					source of their independence. Since independence and creativity are so strongly
					linked, however, and of great interest in the biographies of women artists, I
					shall undertake a reconstruction of their early lives.
				In the late 1880s Margaret and Frances Macdonald returned from England with their
					father. It is probable that the sisters, raised in England, at first felt foreign
					in Glasgow. Events that uproot or bring great changes to lives are often those
					encouraging a sense of self and a desire to do something with one's life.
					Possibly the move to Glasgow acted as a stimulus to the sisters. At any rate,
					Margaret and Frances knew who they were, knew what they wanted to do and, soon
					after their arrival in Glasgow, first
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Margaret, then Frances entered the School of Art.
				Once in the school, the sisters found support for their ideas in the presence of
					other like-minded women, such as Jessie Newbery and their contemporaries,
						<persName key="Jessie Margaret King" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q47914245">Jessie King</persName>,
					craftswoman and book illustrator, and <persName>Jane Fonie</persName>, an
					interior designer. A tradition of active women had been established at the
					school in 1882 when a group of former students founded the <orgName key="Glasgow Society of Lady Artists" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5566917">Glasgow Society of Lady
						Artists</orgName>' Club, the oldest women's club in Britain. <note><title>The Glasgow Boys, Part Two: The History of the Group and
							Illustrations</title> (Edinburgh: The Scottish Arts Council, 1971), p.
						77.</note>
				The sisters acquired backbone at the school. They were trained in drawing from
					the model, drawing freehand, anatomical and botanical drawing, as well as
					ornamental design. The school encouraged them to develop their own distinctive
					styles at an early stage. Soon their unrefined and untamed energies led to
					bizarre shapes, to angular and cutting edges to their female forms.
				Shortly after leaving the school the sisters reputations traveled as far as
					London. In 1896, the <orgName key="Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q4801490">London Arts and Crafts Exhibition
						Society</orgName> invited "The Four" to send furniture, craftwork and
					posters in the "modern style" to that year's exhibition. The sisters sent four
					pieces, two of which they had worked on together: a clock of beaten silver with
					beaten brass weights and an aluminum pendulum, a muffin stand, a beaten aluminum
					panel, <title>The Star of Bethlehem</title>, by Francis and <title>The
						Annunciation</title> by Margaret. <note><title>Catalogue of the Fifth
							Exhibition, 1896</title> (London: Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society,
						1896), exhibit nos: 285, 475, 508, 511.</note>
				The themes of these early figurative pieces express the sisters two constant
					iconographic interests, women and babies. Frequently the woman/Virgin appears
					trapped and isolated within their work. And, though Christian subject matter did
					not recur as often in the later pieces, apparently the intensity of their
					religious convictions never dimmed. What a pagan and savage interpretation they
					gave to their Virgin and Child images. London eyes boggled.
				In the mid-1890s the English arts and crafts movement was dominated by William
					Morris's most faithful disciple, Walter Crane. His designs pleased everyone, but
					then they were too innocuous to do otherwise. The polite London art crowd moving
					from a Crane to a Macdonald cried out, "The Spook School!" <note>The sisters’
						work was reviewed in <title>The Studio</title>, IX, December, 1896, pp.
						202-203.</note>
				We can see why. Look at a mirror frame (Figure 5) made by Frances in 1896-1897.
					Two excruciatingly thin female figures with ghoulish eyes point accusingly at
					each other over the seed cases of the Honesty plant. The seed pods look like
					death's heads. And how spooky is the round copper sconce made by both sisters in
					1896-1897 (Figure 1). Imagine it nailed to the wall of a darkened room and lit
					by the fluttering light of candles in its holders. Visualize how the eyes in the
					round copper plate, and in its supports, might enlarge and shrink in the jumping
					shadows of candlelight. Now look at the two female figures, with scraggy,
					flattened forms and hanging breasts imprisoned within the rectangular panels of
					a pair of beaten brass candle sconces (Figures 2 and 3), designed by the two
					sisters in the same years. Strange details give the figures in these sconces an
					apocryphal air: attached to one figure is an orb, supporting a baby suckling at
					the breast; on the other a crescent moon superimposes its cruel edges and, in
					the outspread hands of the same figure, vivid marks, more like stigmata than
					wrinkles, are slashed in the open palms. The air of suffering and martyrdom in
					these figures is so marked that I find myself speculating whether the sisters,
					consciously or unconsciously, made associations between these two female figures
					and the sacrificial roles lived out by the majority of women they knew. But not
					themselves; at this point they were still free.
				The sisters might have felt dashed by the epithet "The Spook School" since the
					Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society never asked them or "The Four" to exhibit
					again. However, <persName key="Gleeson White" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5567501">Gleeson White</persName>,
					editor of the influential arts magazine <title key="The Studio" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q2078251">The
						Studio</title>, responded enthusiastically to the originality of
					their designs and visited Glasgow to find out more about the arts and crafts
					movement there. After his visit, <title>The Studio</title> published a two-part
					article on the Glasgow artists with part one almost entirely devoted to the
					Macdonald sisters' works. <note><title>The Studio</title>, XI, July, 1897, pp.
						86-100.</note>
				<persName key="Gleeson White" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5567501">Gleeson White</persName> was impressed that the sisters not only designed all the pieces he
					saw but, apart from some joinery work, they handled, beat and wrought even the
					large and heavy pieces themselves, including two floor-standing clocks. Neither
					sister was covetous of her individual contribution to the pieces they jointly
					designed and executed. They refused to be drawn into games of
					identification.
				After looking at their early emaciated figures, the inflated look the sisters'
					works acquire in the early 1900s comes as a surprise. Reproduced here is a panel
					Margaret designed in colored plaster for the Rose Boudoir
					(Figure 6), shown at the International
						Exhibition, Turin, 1902. Some of
					Frances's figures acquire a similar full-blown look in these years. In the early
					1900s the sisters changed their models; the influence of Japanese prints and
					works by the pre-Raphaelites
					superseded the earlier sources of Celtic art, <persName key="Aubrey Beardsley" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q272566">Aubrey Beardsley</persName> and
						<persName key="Jan Toorop" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q369416">Jan
						Toorop</persName>. <note>Ford Madox Brown’s <title>Take Your Son
							Sir</title>, 1856-1857, Tate Gallery, is the source of compositional
						inspiration for Margaret’s piece, as R. Schmultzer, <title>Art
							Nouveau</title> (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1962), p. 240, among others,
						has pointed out.</note> In the 1900s an inventive note appeared in
					Margaret's use of junk materials: colored glass, rope and plaster. The materials
					cost little and gave a rich, jeweled effect. But the rawness, the evil, the
					spirits that had made their early metal pieces fairly rattle, had gone. No
					amount of fancy curvilinear lines or innovative mixing of media could atone for
					this. Do success and marriage account for this transformation of the sisters' works?
				No matter the causes, each new development the sisters and their husbands brought
					forth was eagerly seized upon by their audience on the Continent. In 1900 they
					were invited to furnish and decorate an entire room at the eighth
						Secessionist Exhibition in Vienna. In 1902,
					along with other Glasgow artists, they exhibited works in the Scottish section
					of the International Exhibition of Decorative Art in Turin. Everything the four
					artists sent to the two exhibitions sold. Between 1899 and 1905, articles,
					reviews and illustrations of their works appeared

frequently in influential journals such as <title key="Dekorative Kunst" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5252833">Dekorative
							Kunst</title> and <title key="Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q87095104">Deutsche Kunst und
							Dekoration</title>; <title key="Ver Sacrum" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q684704">Ver
						Sacrum</title>, the official publication of the Vienna Secession,
					devoted an issue to them.
				Suddenly, in 1905, curiosity about the four artists declined on the Continent.
					Even in Scotland the number of commissions began to drop; England never revived
					the brief interest it had displayed in 1896. Though Charles and Margaret had a
					highly successful exhibition in St. Petersburg in
					1913, where everything but the carpet sold, and though one other show was
					planned for Paris in 1914, the successes of their first
					heady decade were never repeated.
				It becomes impossible to find published reproductions of the sisters works after
					1905. One of the last I found is a gesso panel made by Margaret in 1905 (Figure
					4). Undeniably, this is the most powerfully modeled piece yet seen, but the
					subject shows a dangerous stagnation. It is no more than a summation of themes
					explored earlier by the sisters. For whom were those plaster tears meant to
					fall? Catherine Cranston's tearoom clientele? Or Margaret and her sister? Did
					Margaret begin to feel she was cast in a mold much as her rope and glass ladies?
					Did she mourn her lost independence? Were her spirits and her creativity
					slipping away? I believe so, and I am saddened.
				I am against passive readings of history. People, their deeds, as well as those
					they avoided doing, affect us mightily. The Macdonald sisters capitulated.
<note>Mentioning the care Margaret took of her husband (he became an
						alcoholic), Robert Macleod writes how patiently and devotedly she had borne
						"the years of trial and disappointment." <title>Charles Rennie
							Mackintosh</title> (Feltham, Middlesex: Country Life, 1968), p.
						150.</note> They allowed their strident voices of the 1890s to fade into
					soothing murmurs and echoes of what once they were. How dared they! [They make
					it harder for us to shape ourselves into the creative and independent beings we
					would like to be. We need all the positive models we can get our hands on, and
					here are two more negative ones.]
				Did this change in their art reflect the constraints of their times? Yes. It was
					difficult for women in turn-of-the-century Glasgow to train and practice as
					architects, as the Macdonalds' husbands did. Both sisters would have benefited
					from the training and practice of this profession. The status of crafts, despite
					the sincere activities of William Morris who tried to unite the arts and the
					crafts (and all the activities and organizations that this engendered)
					remained very much a poor relative of their rich aunt, Fine Art. Margaret and
					Frances worked at their drawing boards and hammered out their metal panels. They
					probably wondered what the studio people were up to. Fine artists (among them
					women) painted decadent images of women—think of Beardsley's art. Could Margaret
					and Frances humbly working in the lower echelons of the crafts not pick up those
					cues? As craftswomen working in a stratified society, it might not have occurred
					to them to push their early independent spirits farther than they did.
				The Macdonald sisters' best years were all too short. Their career spanned the
					period of the realliance between the arts and the crafts and its subsequent
					deterioration. Neither Glasgow's renaissance of the arts nor women’s
					independence survived two decades. The cycles of local movements were taken up
					within the larger motions grinding inside the machinery of Western capitalist
					society in the years preceding World War I. When the confidence, energy and
					profits of the middle and upper classes decreased in those years, the effect was
					soon seen in the arts. In the depression of the 1930s, one of the last of
					Glasgow's tearooms, <note>Oakley (p. 185) states that none of the tearooms
						have survived intact, though part of the famous Willow Tearoom was doing
						service, quite recently, as Daly’s Bridal Boutique.</note> its wood, brick,
					colored glass, rope, pale mauve and green gesso ladies, crumbled under the
					hammers of demolition workers.
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				Josephine Gear is an art historian presently teaching at the Parsons School of Design in New York.
			</div>
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