Document <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><?xml-model href="http://www.tei-c.org/release/xml/tei/custom/schema/relaxng/tei_all.rng" type="application/xml" schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?><?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/BucknellDSC/heresies/main/CSS/heresies_cwrc.css"?><TEI xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"> <teiHeader> <fileDesc> <titleStmt> <title>Turkmen Women, Weaving and Cultural Exchange</title> <author>Mary A. Martin</author> <respStmt> <persName>Haley Beardsley</persName> <resp>Editor (2021- Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Erica Delsandro</persName> <resp>Investigator, editor</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Mia DeRoco</persName> <resp>Editor (2023-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Margaret Hunter</persName> <resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Diane Jakacki</persName> <resp>Invesigator, encoder</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Sophie McQuaide</persName> <resp>Editor (2021-2023)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Olivia Martin</persName> <resp>Editor, encoder (2021)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Zoha Nadeer</persName> <resp>Editor (2022-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Bri Perea</persName> <resp>Editor (2022-23)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Carrie Pirmann</persName> <resp>HTR editor, encoder (2023-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Ricky Rodriguez</persName> <resp>Editor (2022-2023)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Roger Rothman</persName> <resp>Investigator, editor</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Kaitlyn Segreti</persName> <resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Maggie Smith</persName> <resp>Editor (2021-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Maya Wadhwa</persName> <resp>Editor (2021-2023)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Lucy Wadswoth</persName> <resp>Editor (2022-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <respStmt> <persName>Anna Marie Wingard</persName> <resp>Editor (2023-Present)</resp> </respStmt> <funder>Bucknell University Humanities Center</funder> <funder>Bucknell University Office of Undergraduate Research</funder> <funder>The Mellon Foundation</funder> <funder>National Endowment for the Humanities</funder> </titleStmt> <publicationStmt> <distributor> <name>Bucknell University</name> <address> <street>One Dent Drive</street> <settlement>Lewisburg</settlement> <region>Pennsylvania</region> <postCode>17837</postCode> </address> </distributor> <availability> <licence>Bucknell Heresies Project: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)</licence> <licence>Heresies journal: © Heresies Collective</licence> </availability> </publicationStmt> <sourceDesc> <biblStruct> <analytic> <title>[ISSUE TITLE]</title> </analytic> <monogr> <imprint> <publisher>HERESIES: A Feminist Publication on Art and Politics</publisher> <pubPlace> <address> <name>Heresies</name> <postBox>P.O. 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</rdf:Description> </rdf:RDF></xenoData></teiHeader> <text> <body> <div> <pb facs="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/BucknellDSC/heresies/main/issue04/images/Heresies_04_117.jpg" n="114" xml:id="img_0117"/> <head><title>Turkmen Women, Weaving and Cultural Change</title></head> <byline> <persName>Mary A. Martin</persName></byline> <p> <orgName key="Turkmens" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q484472" cert="high">Turkmen</orgName> carpets are fine examples of weaving done by <orgName key="nomad" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q128393">nomadic</orgName> tribal women. In the last 100 years the context of weaving these carpets has changed considerably; formerly women produced them in the home for local consumption, now contract weavers and female and male factory workers produce for urban and foreign markets. In the nineteenth century the Turkmen lived in the <placeName key="Karakum Desert" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q172702">Kara Kum</placeName> desert in that part of <placeName key="Central Asia" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q27275">Central Asia</placeName> which is now the Soviet Socialist Republic of <placeName key="Turkmenistan" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q874">Turkmenistan</placeName>. This tribe primarily raised sheep and occasionally farmed. They sometimes raided neighboring areas. Nomads, they lived in tents called <emph>yurts</emph> which could be packed up and taken with them when they moved from one grazing area to another.</p> <p> Traditionally women made textile items for domestic use. For their <emph>yurts</emph> they made felt walls and decorative bands. They also knotted or embroidered individual bags for carrying tent poles, utensils, provisions and other household possessions. A special carpet was hung at the entrance of the <emph>yurt</emph> and another was hung to function as a door. </p> <p> Carpets woven by women were central to household, cultural and religious life: used for entertaining, given as gifts, spread for community gatherings, used to furnish guesthouses, and used for prayers. Turkmen society regarded a woman's weaving skill much as it esteemed a man's code of valor; weaving defined a woman's status, indirectly gave her access to wealth, was the one domain in which a woman was able to distinguish herself.</p> <p> In the latter half of the nineteenth century the life of the Turkmen changed because <placeName key="Russia" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q159">Russia</placeName> took permanent political and military control and inhibited Turkmen raids of surrounding populations. At this time many Turkmen moved to <placeName key="Afghanistan" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q889">Afghani territory</placeName> although it was not until the 1920s that large numbers fled to Afghanistan to escape Soviet collectivization.</p> <p> In Afghanistan the Turkmen competed for pastures and living space with other ethnic groups—<orgName key="Pashtuns" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q2556103">Pashtun</orgName>, <orgName key="Aimaq people" ref="http://dbpedia.org/resource/Aimaq_people">Aimaq</orgName>, <orgName key="Hazaras" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q115473">Hazara</orgName>, <orgName key="Tajiks" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q483505">Tajik</orgName>, <orgName key="Baloch" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q201501">Baluch</orgName>, <orgName key="Arabs" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q35323">Arab</orgName> and <orgName key="Ozbek" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q483047">Uzbeg</orgName>. As the pasturage was limited in Afghanistan and Turkmen flocks reduced, many Turkmen settled into villages; few continued to live as nomads in <emph>yurts</emph>. If families did not raise enough sheep to provide wool for their weaving needs they had to purchase it—no longer from other Turkmen but from other tribes, such as the tent-dwelling Pashtun. Individual or market trading formerly carried out with kinsmen and other Turkmen was now done with groups who were neither.</p> <p> The move to Afghanistan severely affected carpet weaving. For ten to fifteen years after arriving in Afghanistan Turkmen women did not make carpets.* When they began making carpets again, they had to overcome this break in tradition. They remembered carding, spinning and weaving techniques, but colors and patterns changed. Young girls had grown up without learning the traditional designs. When older women had died, they had taken with them the knowledge of traditional patterns and of dye recipes. Changes in color in twentieth-century carpets may also be related to the difficulty of obtaining customary vegetable dyes and mordants in a new ecological setting. The breed of sheep and quality of wool also differed in the new environment. De- <pb facs="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/BucknellDSC/heresies/main/issue04/images/Heresies_04_118.jpg" n="115" xml:id="img_0118"/> signs once unique to particular tribal sections, isolated from each other in the past, changed as they came into direct contact with each other. Women now married into other groups which led to the mixing of traditional designs. </p> <p> The society in which Turkmen live has been transformed since the nineteenth century, affecting the women who traditionally weave the carpets as well as their relation to the mode of production of these carpets. Production has shifted its locus from kinship units to a nonkinship context, the factory. The family mode of production could not meet the rising demand for carpets, thus contract weaving and factories increased.</p> <p> The first factories in the provinces employed only men, but women were weaving out of the home in women's centers or prisons at that time. In the past few years factories in <placeName key="Kabul" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q5838">Kabul</placeName> have begun to train and employ women who weave in rooms separate from the men. Because of the profit to be gained from weaving, non-Turkmen women have begun to take up carpet weaving—often by apprenticing themselves to Turkmen women in their homes or by going to the factories to learn. Weaving now serves as one of the few non-domestic occupations open to women in Afghanistan. At a time when the family-centered tribal society is breaking down, carpet weaving allows women an opportunity to participate in a more complex, non-kin-based economy.</p> <p> Since the days when Turkmen women lived on the Russian steppes and wove for their families, conditions have changed. The women who remained in the <orgName key="Soviet Union" ref="http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q15180">Soviet Union</orgName> were employed in state-controlled factories before the women who moved to Afghanistan.</p> <p> Afghani Turkmen women still weave under traditional conditions or on contract; primarily it is non-Turkmen women in Afghanistan who have begun factory work. Where Turkmen women oversee the process in factories, the high quality of weave has been maintained.</p> <p> Turkmen women have always had an important influence on weaving, originally produced for exclusively domestic use but now produced for market consumption as well. Although the traditional colors and designs have changed because of political boundaries, migration and altered modes of production, Turkmen women continue to produce fine examples of weaving.</p> <p>Note: Material for this article comes from travel through Turkmen regions in Afghanistan in 1971 and observations in a Kabul carpet factory in December 1975 and February 1977. Special thanks are due to <persName>Hajji Ewaz Badghisi</persName>, his wife, <persName>Bayram</persName>, and daughter, <persName>Aidgol</persName>, for their patience in explaining the techniques of weaving and dyeing. I also wish to acknowledge the assistance of <persName>Dr. Brian Spooner</persName> and <persName>Pat Barr</persName> for their part in helping me learn about the Turkmen and their weaving in the twentieth century. </p><p>*Brian Spooner, "Afghan Carpets," Expedition 15 (2), 1973, p. 15.</p> </div> </body> <back> <p> Mary A. Martin is a cultural anthropologist who has worked in Iran and Afghanistan. She lives in Philadelphia.</p> </back> </text> </TEI> Document Download Image - Name Turkmen Women, Weaving and Cultural Change Object Type XML document Related Item No
